| Cytokines | Related signaling pathways | Source | Targets | Functions / Effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Growth hormone (GH) | JAK2, STAT5b | Pituitary gland, placenta | Various tissues | Growth, adipocyte differentiation |
| Prolactin (PRL) | JAK2, STATa | Pituitary gland, placenta | Breast epithelial cells | Growth, differentiation |
| Erythropoietin (EPO) | JAK2, STAT5 | Kidney, liver | Red lineage precursor cells | Red lineage differentiation |
| Platelet Thrombopoietin (TPO) | JAK2, STAT5 | Liver, kidney | Targeted progenitor cells, megakaryocytes | Promotes platelet production |
| Leptin | JAK2/STAT3 | Adipocytes | Hypothalamus, thyroid | Satiety, control of metabolic rate |
| Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) | JAK2, S1AT3 | Immature and directed granular mononuclear progenitor cells, macrophages, granulocytes, DC | Directed progenitor cells | Stimulates the growth of monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils; activates macrophages |
| CSF-1/M-CSF | Ras/Raf/MAPK | Fibroblasts, endothelial cells, epithelial cells | Directed granule mononuclear progenitor cells | Stimulates the growth of monocyte precursors |
| Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) | JAK2, S1AT3 | Many tissues, macrophages, endothelial cells, fibroblasts | Directed progenitor cells | Stimulates the growth of neutrophil precursors; promotes granulocyte differentiation and activation |
| Stem cell factor (SCF) | Ras/Raf/MAPK | Bone marrow stromal cells | Pluripotent stem cells | Activation, growth |
| TNF-α | Th, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, mast cells, NK cells, B cells | Tumor cytotoxic effect; can cause malignancy; induces cytokine secretion; induces endothelial cell E selectin production; activates macrophages; antiviral. | ||
| Lymphotoxin (TNF-β) | Th1, Tc | Tumor cytotoxic effect; enhances cytocytosis of neutrophils and macrophages; involved in lymphoid organ development; antiviral. | ||
| IFN-α | JAK2, TYK2, STAT1, STAT2 | Leukocytes | Osteoblasts, including NK | Inhibits viral replication; enhances the action of MHC class II molecules. |
| IFN-β | JAK2, TYK2, STAT1, STAT2 | Fibroblasts | osteoblasts, including NK | Inhibits viral replication; enhances the role of MHC class II molecules. |
| IFN-γ | JAK1, JAK2, STAT1 | Th1, Tc1, NK | macrophages, endothelial cells, NK cells | Inhibits viral replication; enhances the role of MHC class II molecules; activates macrophages; induces switch in immunoglobulin expression to lgG2a; antagonizes IL-4 action; inhibits Th2 proliferation. |
| FLT-3 ligand | Ras/Raf/MAPK | Various tissues | myeloid cells, especially DC | Proliferation, differentiation; induce hematopoietic stem cells from G0 phase to proliferative phase |
| TGF-β | Th, B cells, macrophages, mast cells | Pro-inflammatory effects, such as induction of monocyte and macrophage chemotaxis; Anti-inflammatory effects, such as inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation and induction of immunoglobulin switching to IgA; promotes tissue repair. | ||
| IL-1α, IL-1β | IRAK (IL-1 receptor-associated kinase), MyD88, TRAF6 (TNF receptor-associated factor 6), NF-kB | Monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, NK, B, endothelial cells | CNS endothelial cells, liver, thymocytes, macrophages, T cells | Co-stimulates T-cell activation by enhancing expression of cytokines (e.g. IL-2 and its receptors); enhances B-cell proliferation and maturation, NK cytotoxicity; induces IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, TNF, GM-CSF and PGE2 expression in macrophages; induces chemokines and ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression in endothelial cells to play a pro-inflammatory role; induces fever, acute phase protein expression, and bone resorption. |
| IL-2 | JAK1, JAK3, STAT5 | Th1 | T cells, B cells, NK cells, giant hemophagocytes | Induces the proliferation of activated T cells and activated B cells; enhances NK cytotoxic activity and enhances the ability of monocytes and macrophages to kill tumor cells and bacteria. |
| IL-3 | Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) | T, NK, mast cells | Monocytes | Hematopoietic cell precursor growth and differentiation; mast cell growth. |
| IL-4 | JAK1, JAK3, STAT6 | Th2, Tc2, NK, NKT, γδT, mast cells | T cells, B cells, giant DS cells | Induces Th2 cells; stimulates proliferation of activated B, T, and mast cells; upregulates B cells, macrophage MHC class II molecules, and CD23 in B cells; downregulates IL-12 production thereby inhibiting Th1 differentiation; enhances macrophage cytokinesis; induces immunoglobulin switching to IgG1 and IgE. |
| IL-5 | JAK2, STAT5 | Th2, mast cells | Eosinophils, B cells, eosinophils, mast cells | Induces proliferation of eosinophilic and activated B cells; induces immunoglobulin switch to IgA. |
| IL-6 | JAK1, S1AT3 | Th2, monocytes, macrophages, dendrites, bone marrow stromal cells | Liver, B cells, T cells, thymocytes, contact cells, osteoblasts | Promotes differentiation of myeloid stem cells and B cells into plasma cells; induces acute phase protein expression; enhances T cell proliferation; on Th17 and Tfh. |
| IL-7 | JAK1, JAK3, STAT5 | Bone marrow and thymic stromal cells | Thymocytes, T cells, B cells | Induces differentiation of lymphoid stem cells into T-lineage progenitors and B-lineage progenitors; activates mature T cells. |
| IL-8/CXCL8 | Monocytes, macrophages, endothelial cells | Mediates chemotaxis and activation of neutrophils. | ||
| IL-9 | JAK1, JAK3, STAT5 | Th | T cells, B cells, mast cell precursors | Induces proliferation of thymocytes; enhances mast fine growth; synergizes with IL-4 to induce immunoglobulin switching to IgG1 and IgE. |
| IL-10 | JAK1, TYK2, STAT3 | Th, Tc, B, monocytes, macrophages | Macrophages | Inhibits IFNγ secretion in mice, inhibits human IL-2 secretion, suppresses Th1 cells; downregulates MHC class II molecules and cytokine (IL-12, etc.) production in monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, thereby inhibiting Th1 differentiation; inhibits T cell proliferation; enhances B differentiation. |
| IL-11 | JAK1, STAT3 | Bone marrow stromal cells | Hematopoietic stem cells, hepatocytes, macrophages, neurons | Promotes differentiation of early B cells and megakaryocytes; induces acute phase protein expression. |
| IL-12 | JAK2, TYK2, STAT4 | Monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells | T cells, NK cells | Th1 differentiation-critical cytokine; induces the proliferation of Th1, CD8+T, γδT, NK and IFNγ production. Enhances NK cell and CD8+ T cytotoxic effects. |
| IL-13 | JAK1, TYK2, STAT6 | Th2, mast cells | B cells, mast cells, macrophages, epithelial cells, smooth muscle cells | Inhibits macrophage activation and cytokine secretion; co-stimulates B cell proliferation; upregulates MHC class II molecules and CD23 expression in B cells and monocytes; induces switch in immunoglobulin expression to IgG and IgE; induces VCAM-1 expression in endothelial cells. |
| IL-15 | JAK1, JAK3, STAT5 | T, NK, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells | T cells, especially memory cells | Induces proliferation of T, NK, and activated B cells; induces cytokine production of NK, CD8+T; one of the chemokines of T cells; stimulates growth of small intestinal epithelial cells. |
| IL-16 | Th, Tc | CD4+ T cells | Induces CD4+ T, monocyte, eosinophilia; induces expression of MHC class II molecules. | |
| IL-17 | T cells | Pro-inflammatory effects; stimulates expression of TNF, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, G-CSF and other factors. | ||
| IL-17A | Th17, NK, neutrophil-like cells | endothelial cells, etc. | Pro-inflammatory effects; stimulates expression of TNF, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, G-CSF and other factors in epithelial cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts. | |
| IL-17B/C/D | Multiple cells | Monocytes, epithelial cells | Inflammation, chondrogenesis | |
| IL-17E(IL-25) | TRAF2 | Mast cells, Th2 cells | Th2 cells | Enhancement of Th2 response |
| IL-17F | Th17, NK, neutrophils | Endothelial cells, etc. | Similar to IL-17A. | |
| IL-18 | Macrophages, dendritic cells | T cells, NK cells, giant hemophils, epithelial cells | Induces IFNγ production by T cells; enhances NK cytotoxic effects. | |
| IL-19 | STAT1, S7AT3 | Monocytes | T cells, keratin-forming cells, epithelial cells | Regulates Th1 activity. |
| IL-20 | STAT1, S7AT3 | Monocytes, keratinocytes | T cells, keratin-forming cells, epithelial cells | Regulates skin inflammatory response. |
| IL-21 | JAK1, JAK3, STAT3 | T cells, Th17 cells, Tfh cells | T cell, B cell, NK cell, DC | Regulation of hematopoiesis; NK differentiation; B-cell activation; T-cell co-stimulation; Tfh-directed differentiation and survival. |
| IL-22 | STAT1, S7AT3 | T cells | T cells, keratin-forming cells, epithelial cells | Inhibits IL-4 production by Th2. |
| IL-23 | JAK2, TYK2, STAT3, STAT5 | Dendritic cells | T cells, giant eosinophils | Induces Th1 proliferation and IFNγ production; induces Th17 expansion and survival; induces macrophage expression of pro-inflammatory factors (e.g., IL-1, IL-6, TNF). |
| IL-24 | STAT1, S7AT3 | Th2, monocytes, macrophages | T cells, keratin-forming cells, epithelial cells | Induces TNF, IL-1, IL-6 expression and induces anti-tumor activity. |
| IL-25 | Th1, macrophages, mast cells | Induces IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 expression and induces Th2-associated pathological changes. | ||
| IL-26 | STAT1, S7AT3 | T cells, NK cells | T cells, keratin-forming cells, epithelial cells | Enhances IL-8 and IL-10 production by epithelial cells. |
| IL-27 | JAK1, STAT1, S1AT3, STAT4, STAT5 | Dendritic cells, monocytes | T cells and NK cells and other | Induces Th1 response; enhances IFNγ production. |
| IL-28 | STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT4, STAT5 | Dendritic cells, monocytes | many kinds of cells | Type 1 IFN-like activity and inhibition of viral replication. |
| IL-29 | STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT4, STAT5 | Dendritic cells, monocytes | Multiple cells | Type 1 IFN-like activity that inhibits viral replication. |
| IL-30 | STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT4, STAT5 | Antigen-presenting cells | A variety of cells | P28 subunit of IL-27 heterodimer, regulates the responsiveness of initial T cells to IL-12; acts synergistically with IL-12 to induce IFNγ expression. |
| IL-31 | JAK1, STAT3, STAT5 | T cells | Monocytes, epithelial cells, keratinocytes, eosinophils, dark alkaline granulocytes | Promotes skin inflammatory responses. |
| IL-32 | NF-kB, MAPK | NK cells, T cells | Monocytes, epithelial cells | Promotes inflammatory responses; plays a role in activation-mediated T-cell apoptosis. |
| IL-33 | Stromal cells, dendritic cells | T cells, ILC2 | Induces Th2 factor production; mediates chemotaxis of basophils and mast cells. | |
| IL-34 | Stromal cells, dendritic cells | Stimulates monocyte proliferation and macrophage precursor formation. | ||
| IL-35 | Treg | T cells | Produces immunosuppressive effects on Th1, Th2, Th17 and stimulates Treg proliferation. | |
| IL-36α, IL-36β, IL-36γ | Keratin-forming cells, other barrier tissues, neutrophils | Activates monocytes, macrophages, and keratin-forming cells to produce a variety of pro-inflammatory factors that co-stimulate T cells. | ||
| IL-37 | Unknown | Anti-inflammatory effect, possible antagonist of IL-18R; not expressed in mice. | ||
| IL-38 | Unknown | Macrophages | Anti-inflammatory effect, IL-36α isoform, possible antagonist of IL-36 receptor. |
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